From Sword to Seal: The Emblematic Rise of the Carvajal Family in Early Modern Spain (1390-1516)
On the evening of October 3, 1511, in the Italian city of Pisa, Spanish Cardinal Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal convened an assembly of church leaders to oppose Pope Julius II’s assertion that papal authority was supreme over the Council of Cardinals. Unconvinced by those urging caution, Cardinal Carvajal, the descendent of a family of knights of modest wealth and minor social stature, would not deny his own ambition for the papacy, a position that had eluded him only eight years earlier. Fatefully, Cardinal Carvajal ascended his improvised papal throne at the schismatic Council of Pisa, and sat in opposition to Pope Julius II. His personal victory was short-lived as Julius II ultimately forced the Cardinal to concede his claim to the “pontifical tiara” and temporarily excommunicated him. Even though Bernardino lost his quest for the papacy, his actions were emblematic of the aspirations that characterized his Spanish family. He was the apex of the Carvajal family’s strategic and multi-generational efforts to relinquish their caballero swords in favor of the seals of councilors and officials in the church and monarchy. Throughout the 15th century, the Carvajal family successfully utilized the tools of patronage, occupation, wealth preservation, family confederations, and religious endowments in their pursuit of enhanced status in the Castilian world. This early modern history of the Carvajal family of Plasencia examines their century-long transformation from less-prestigious knights (caballeros) into influential church leaders and royal advisers to the Catholic Monarchs (Los Reyes Catolicos), Ferdinand and Isabel. The journey of the Carvajals reflects both the nature and subtleties of a family’s endeavor to transform their livelihoods, and thus, exemplifies the dynamic processes involved in the formation of elite early modern Castilian families.
The Carvajals hailed from the Spanish-Portuguese frontier of the Extremadura. Prior to the 1400s, they belonged to a less influential clan of knights that had served the Castilian crown for over two hundred years. Like many in the Kingdom of Castile, they had gained only minor favor from the kings for their military service in the Spanish Reconquest (Reconquista) of Iberia. Recognizing that learned traditions could position them on equal footing with Castile’s upper echelon, the Carvajals’ conversion from a caballero clan to an ecclesiastical and administrative family represents a departure from the medieval condition that generally emphasized occupational boundaries (i.e., there are those that fight, those that pray, and those that labor). This positioned the Carvajal family at the vanguard of social and occupational metamorphosis decades before their contemporaries.
Chapter One explores Plasencia’s history prior to 1390 and introduces the notable families of the region. The Carvajals were one of several caballero families that resided in the city and the greater diocese, however, they lacked the wealth and prestige of other elites like the Estuņigas (Condes de Bejar) and the Alvarez de Toledos (Seņores de Oropesa). The arrival of the Santa Maria family from Burgos, who were Jewish converts to Christianity (conversos), significantly aided the Carvajal family in altering their occupational, wealth, and social status starting as early as the 1420s. Chapter Two examines the political and status limitations of caballeros within Plasencia at the opening of the 15th century, especially vis-ā-vis the authority of the local cathedral. The chapter evaluates the medieval vocational divisions that separated Plasencia’s caballeros from local cathedral officials. Specifically, this section presents a significant fourteen-year jurisdictional tax rebellion that pitted the knights against the powerful local cathedral. The outcome of the conflict demonstrates that the Carvajal family lacked sufficient political strength to shield themselves from the church, and thus provides one of many explanations for their decision to infiltrate the church’s leadership. It was during this period that the Carvajal family also initiated efforts to enhance their lineage through marriage and to perpetuate the family’s nobility and religiosity through memorial masses (capellanias).
Chapter Three details how family relations and collaborative patronage efforts were leveraged to acquire control over the Cathedral of Plasencia’s leadership chapter. The church tax conflict between the caballeros and the churchmen exposed both the unsettled affairs outside the walls of the cathedral, as well as the discord within the cathedral’s governing chapter. The internal strife within the church created the conditions necessary for the Carvajal and Santa Maria families to access positions in the chapter and to begin to realize the benefits of chapter membership—namely, salaries and employment opportunities for family and close associates. Chapter Four provides insight into how Castilian families of the early 15th century formed alliances to advance their political, social, and economic interests. Between 1424 and 1431, the Carvajals and Santa Marias solidified their nascent alliance with their capture of a majority of the canonships in the cathedral chapter. By effectively using cathedral assets for personal enrichment, both families maximized patronage and wealth opportunities for their respective clans. Such enhanced clan collaboration extended to city affairs resulting in a rejuvenated bond between the city council and cathedral in the areas of trade taxes and in the resolution of jurisdictional disputes over the transportation of wine.
Chapter Five delves into the complex and interdependent linkages that characterized early modern family confederations. Instead of operating parallel patronage systems, the Carvajal and Santa Maria clans fully integrated their familial networks. This intensive collaboration involved the continued use of cathedral assets to buttress personal financial interests, as well as the expansion of the cathedral’s staff and the reformation of operations. Further, the Carvajals also readied a new generation of family members to lead within Plasencia and to expand the clan’s influence in the Papacy and the Castilian royal court. Chapter Six gauges the transformative impact of occupational change on early modern families, especially in terms of their enhanced capacity to govern and lead church affairs, as well as their ability to confront family competitors. During the mid-15th century, Bishop Juan de Carvajal led a papal initiative to promote a Holy Crusade against the Ottoman Turks, while his brother, Archdeacon Rodrigo de Carvajal, steadily guided the helm of the Cathedral of Plasencia. The Carvajals, by then the dominant party in the Carvajal-Santa Maria coalition, also led efforts to battle the secular lords of Plasencia, the Estuņiga family, over jurisdictional and property issues. The enhanced social stature of the Plasencia Carvajals, as well as their funding of high profile public works and increasingly advantageous marriage alliances, significantly differentiated them from distant clan relations who had remained minor knights.
Chapter Seven and the Epilogue explores the era of Carvajal prominence. Even though Spain’s growing hostility to Jews and conversos in the late 15th century adversely affected their strategic partner, the Santa Marias, the Carvajal clan successfully generated its first elite and influential leaders. These included, among others, the “Antipope”, Cardinal Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal, and his cousin, Dr. Lorenzo Galindez de Carvajal, a personal adviser to the Catholic Monarchs. The Plasencia family’s ascent reached its pinnacle with the founding of their first seigniorial lands (mayorazgos) and with the physical integration and memorialization of their family heraldry into the cathedral’s altar, chapels, and facade. The Epilogue highlights the family’s initial efforts to gain access to the lucrative opportunities in the New World. In sum, this dissertation captures and highlights the intricate, interlocking mechanisms employed by an early modern caballero family to re-envision themselves and join the ranks of Spain’s grand nobility (La Grandeza de Espaņa).
